Termbank
  1. A
    1. Abstraction
    2. Alias
    3. Argument
    4. Array
  2. B
    1. Binary code file
    2. Binary number
    3. Bit
    4. Bitwise negation
    5. Bitwise operation
    6. Byte
  3. C
    1. C library
    2. C-function
    3. C-variable
    4. Character
    5. Code block
    6. Comment
    7. Compiler
    8. Complement
    9. Conditional statement
    10. Conditional structure
    11. Control structure
  4. D
    1. Data structure
    2. Duck typing
  5. E
    1. Error message
    2. Exception
  6. F
    1. Flag
    2. Float
  7. H
    1. Header file
    2. Headers
    3. Hexadecimal
  8. I
    1. Immutable
    2. Initialization
    3. Instruction
    4. Integer
    5. Interpreter
    6. Introduction
    7. Iteroitava
  9. K
    1. Keyword
  10. L
    1. Library
    2. Logical operation
  11. M
    1. Machine language
    2. Macro
    3. Main function
    4. Memory
    5. Method
  12. O
    1. Object
    2. Optimization
  13. P
    1. Parameter
    2. Placeholder
    3. Pointer
    4. Precompiler
    5. Precompiler directive
    6. Prototype
    7. Python console
    8. Python format
    9. Python function
    10. Python import
    11. Python list
    12. Python main program
    13. Python variable
    14. Python-for
    15. Pääfunktio
    16. printf
  14. R
    1. Resource
    2. Return value
  15. S
    1. Statement
    2. Static typing
    3. String
    4. Syntax
  16. T
    1. Terminal
    2. Type
    3. Typecast
  17. U
    1. Unsigned
  18. V
    1. Value
  19. W
    1. Warning
    2. while
Completed: / exercises

Embedded real-time operating system

Learning goals: Basic principles of embedded programming.
We will start familiarizing ourselves with embedded systems programming by first reviewing the structure of a program (in Raspberry Pi Pico). After that we will add functionality by learning the usage of different peripheral device libraries.

Real-time operating system

In this course, we are using Raspberry Pi Pico C/C++ SDK and ARM toolchain to program our device. In addition we’ll be using the FreeRTOS real-time operating system (RTOS) to aid us in our programming tasks. This RTOS is widely supported in the industry and is easy enough to understand main programming concepts. Both will be used for practice and eventually for our project work. Throughout the material, you’ll find programming examples for the device, but the best way to learn is by experimenting and hands-on practice. Let’s dive in!
An operating system is software that runs applications on a computer. It has two main tasks: providing an execution environment for applications and managing the computer’s hardware resources, peripherals, and access rights. The operating system offers services to applications through interfaces and libraries, allowing them to utilize these resources—for example, memory management, file systems, peripheral device access, and data transfer from the system to external sources. Additionally, the operating system controls application execution by allocating processor time and memory among different applications. More detailed discussions on these topics are covered in later Operating Systems-course, so we’ll skip an exhaustive presentation here.
One important note: on a computer (PC or server), the operating system (e.g. Windows, Linux, macOS) runs as a separate layer that manages hardware and provides services to applications. Programs are installed and executed on top of this operating system using its system calls and APIs. On the other hand, in embedded systems, the situation is different. The embedded operating system is usually compiled together with the application into a single binary image that runs directly on the hardware. Instead of being a large, independent platform, it provides only the minimal set of services (such as drivers, scheduling, or libraries) that the program needs to interact with the device.
Real-time operating system provides an execution environment for applications in embedded systems. Real-time responsiveness in this context means that the operating system guarantees specific response times for functionalities. For instance, it ensures that responses to input or events occur within one millisecond and that the maximum response time is ten milliseconds. For this reason, the concept of preemption is very important: the operating system can interrupt a running process to allocate resources to another process based on different scheduling policies: mainly time-sharing and priority. The piece of software in charge of assigning time slots to each process is called scheduler. The scheduler uses such policies to determine when it needs to stop the current process execution, and which process should gain access.
An RTOS can be lightweight, merely sharing processor time among applications. This lightweight design supports applications with strict real-time requirements because the operating system's own routines consume minimal time. The implementation of RTOS services significantly impacts the design, implementation, and maintenance of embedded programs.
As mentioned earlier, it is possible to program embedded systems without an operating system or device firmware. In such cases, the programmer is responsible for implementing the device’s corresponding functionalities, connecting peripheral components to the microcontroller programmatically, and implementing the necessary interfaces/services for the application.

Implementation of an embedded program

As mentioned in the previous C language material, modular programming makes a lot of sense and also sense when implementing computer programs. In the embedded world, it’s also sensible to divide the overall program into different tasks in a modular way, where each task’s functionality can be logically encapsulated or in other words, separated. Now, in the program, each task is defined with its own inputs to which it responds and its own outputs.
For example, in the Pico device used in the course, tasks could involve reading sensor data, updating the display, or performing serial or wireless communication. Well, these are not just examples; they are precisely the tasks we’ll implement in the project work.
Now, it makes sense to let the RTOS handle the parallel execution of tasks to ensure efficient responsiveness. The programmer’s responsibility is to implement the actual task and define its execution parameters, considering efficiency requirements. These execution parameters include timing, priority, memory allocation, initial settings, and more. In this context, learning embedded programming involves understanding how to use these ready-made RTOS features through libraries, interfaces, and software structures.
An alternative would be to program the RTOS or device firmware manually, following an Arduino-style superloop architecture (a large loop within the main function that contains all program functionality). As mentioned, the superloop is an acceptable solution for small embedded systems with modest resource and performance requirements. However, it sacrifices many benefits of modularity, and the programmer might inadvertently hinder program execution. Administratively, such an approach can become a so called nightmare because even minor code changes may disrupt finely tuned timings. It’s unlikely that anyone would manually implement task prioritization within a superloop; the solution would inevitably be cumbersome. In the professional world, embedded programming is its own art form compared to general workstation programming, especially when dealing with demanding tasks, peripheral drivers, or even custom operating systems.
In addition to implementing tasks and defining execution parameters, synchronizing task behavior requires solutions. For instance, a single input (such as a button press on the device) might trigger one or multiple tasks or cause a sequence of consecutive actions across different tasks. How can such a design be achieved?
Actually, now we’re getting into the territory of the Operating Systems course, so let’s leave those matters there. However, there’s a familiar and straightforward solution from digital technology that we’ll be using in the course: state machines. The course doesn’t aim to delve deeper into the theory of state machines (which is quite extensive), but we’ll use them to implement synchronization between tasks in our program.
In short, the idea behind a state machine is that the logical execution of a program progresses from one state to another based on inputs, tasks, and responses. To achieve this, the program defines (at least one) state variable whose value changes according to events and corresponding tasks. Software components (read: functions) that react to tasks and events receive information about state changes and perform actions accordingly. Afterward, the state transitions to the next state, and the software components react to it again. For example, state transitions in an embedded program could look like this:
waiting state -> button press -> read sensor data -> display result/message -> waiting state
In this example, the program could have three or four different tasks: an interrupt handler that responds to button presses, a task for communicating with the sensor, a task for updating the display, and possibly a concurrent task for wireless data transfer. Perhaps even a task for preprocessing data, depending on factors like the amount of data. Now, you could certainly implement this logical functionality using a superloop, but then you’d need to consider the state of other program functionalities in each subtask—for instance, whether you’re currently communicating with peripheral devices. In the example above, we couldn’t receive messages simultaneously while reading sensor data.
Here’s an example: A state machine-based implementation of an embedded program for Arduino. Here also there is an interesting example. Even just looking at the overview on that pages is worthwhile, especially because we’ll be using a similar approach in the course. Let's present a simple example with Arduino: 
enum State {
  WAITING,
  READ_SENSOR,
  PROCESS_DATA,
  DISPLAY_RESULT,
  TRANSMIT_DATA
};
State currentState = WAITING;

void loop() {
  switch (currentState) {
    case WAITING:
      if (buttonPressed()) {
        currentState = READ_SENSOR;
      }
      break;
      
    case READ_SENSOR:
      readSensor();
      currentState = PROCESS_DATA;
      break;
      
    case PROCESS_DATA:
      processData();
      currentState = DISPLAY_RESULT;
      break;
      
    case DISPLAY_RESULT:
      displayResult();
      currentState = TRANSMIT_DATA;
      break;
      
    case TRANSMIT_DATA:
      transmitData();
      currentState = WAITING;
      break;
  }
}
Well, more on this shortly.

Introduction of FreeRTOS and Pico SDK

In this course we are using Raspberry Pi Pico. The Raspberry Pi Pico microcontroller is the RP2040 (Version 1) and the RP2350 (for the version 2). In addition the Pico provides external Flash Memory, regulator and a crystal oscillator. The RP2040 architecture is shown in the following picture. It has a dual core ARM M0+ chip, 264KB of RAM and different peripherals to connect external devices.
"architecture of RP2040"
FreeRTOS, the real-time operating system used in the course, does not in itself provide anything else besides the basic tools needed to implement programs requiring real-time operations. Luckily, we have Pico C/C++ SDK (later only Pico SDK) maintained by Raspberry Pi. This SDK allows us to use for example the pins and peripheral devices connected to the Pico. This functionality is hidden below API (application programming interface) in various different libraries. By using these libraries, we can enable these functionalities in our program.
We will mention some of these libraries now, but the usage of them in programs will be discussed in detail in later sections of the lecture material.
(For those who are interested: Pico SDK and FreeRTOS are open-source software. This means that their source code is publicly available, so anyone can view it here and here).
The following figure presents the different components from a system perspective:
"Image diagram"
The RP2040 / RP2350 interact with their peripherals through specific drivers provided in the SDK. On top of this, the HAL layer simplifies interaction by avoiding direct register access. The API further abstracts the device, ensuring that all Raspberry Pi Pico family chips (currently the RP2040 and RP2350) can use the same SDK. FreeRTOS adds scheduling and task control capabilities. Finally, your user application is built on top of this infrastructure. This approach makes development significantly easier compared to bare-metal programming, where you would have to work directly with the hardware registers.

Services and libraries

We will use the following libraries to implement programs. Don't worry, the terms used below will be discussed in lecture material later.
In the SDK most of the most impartant libraries are aggregated in the pico_stdlib library which includes among others: hardware_gpio, pico_stdio, and hardware_uart.
(For those who are interested: More information about the libraries can be found from the documentation of Pico SDK)
You can find lots of examples on programming using the Pico-SDK in the official Pico examples repository. It includes examples of FreeRTOS also.

Functionality of a program

Let’s take a closer look at the main function in a Pico C program. When working with FreeRTOS and the Pico SDK, the C language might initially appear cryptic due to the extensive use of predefined elements. However, understanding the code and considering what actually happens can be helpful.
In the context of Pico programming, there is indeed a main function from which the program execution begins. Although FreeRTOS performs some background tasks before executing the main function, we won’t delve into those details in this course.
Below is an example of the main-function of a FreeRTOS-program:
//Including the libraries of FreeRTOS and Pico
#include <FreeRTOS.h>
#include <task.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <pico/stdlib.h>
#include <inttypes.h>
//Includes libraries for the HAT. Not part of the SDK or FreeRTOS. 
#include <TKJTAG/sdk.h>

void buttonFxn(uint gpio, uint32_t eventMask);
void taskFxn(void * pvParams);

#define STACKSIZE 1024

int main(void) {
    //(en) Optional support for stdio. Start Pico input/output
    stdio_init_all(); 
    //(en) Optional, intialize the Pico HAT. This is not specific for SDK, but for the hat you are using.
    init_hat();

    TaskHandle_t myTaskHandle = NULL;
    // (en) I/O-definition that is used to enable a push button
    gpio_init(BUTTON1);
    gpio_set_dir(BUTTON1, 0);
   // (en) We set and interrupt handler for the button, in this case the function buttonFxn
    gpio_set_irq_enabled_with_callback(BUTTON1, GPIO_IRQ_EDGE_FALL, true, buttonFxn);

    // (en) We initialize one task to the application, implementation is in taskFn-function
    BaseType_t result = xTaskCreate(
        taskFxn,
        "BUTTON_TASK",
        STACKSIZE,
        NULL,
        1,
        &myTaskHandle
    );

    if(result != pdPASS) {
        printf("Task create failed!\n");
        return 0;
    }

    // (en) Tell that the initialization of the device succeeded
    printf("Initialization OK!\n");

    // (en) Start the FreeRTOS scheduler
    vTaskStartScheduler();

    return 0;
}
In all C programs, libraries are brought into the program using preprocessor directives at the beginning of the program. With FreeRTOS, there are quite a few of these libraries, and we haven’t covered them all here (not even close). FreeRTOS includes also a configuration file: FreeRTOSConfig.h. We include also the libraries to use the different sensors and actuators of our TKJ HAT (more on this in future chapters). For instance the BUTTON0 is not part of the Raspberry Pi Pico hardware, but of the extension HAT that we will use in the course. In our case the librar is in TKJTag/sdk.h.
In main we include the different intialization: I/0, HAT and peripherals (defining required I/O settings). In the example, we enable one of the push buttons and define the event handler (interrupt) for button presses, which is the function buttonFxn. Each FreeRTOS task is essentially a C function, and the rules for writing and using them are (with some reservations) the same as for regular C functions.
After that, there’s room in the main function to perform other initializations to control the program’s behavior. For example, if we use timers to control task execution, we can initialize them here.
Finally, it’s a good idea to send greetings to the development environment’s console window using the debugger. This way, we can verify that the device initialization was successful. The puts or printf function can be used to write to the console window. printf works (with minor exceptions) similarly to the standard C library’s printf function. Remember that embedded implementations of standard libraries can vary in terms of implemented features.
Note that the code includes many post-initialization checks to ensure that the initializations were successful. These checks are necessary, because when programming embedded systems, our view of the device’s internal operation is limited. You can also used led blinking to show that the process have succeed, specially when you do not have access to console.
A common question is how the program keeps running forever if there is no infinite loop in main() like in Arduino. The reason is that once we call vTaskStartScheduler();, the FreeRTOS kernel takes control of execution. The scheduler starts the different tasks and manages how they run. Each task is typically written with its own internal infinite loop, ensuring that it continues executing as long as the scheduler is active. The scheduler itself will always run as long as there are active tasks in the system, switching between them as needed to keep the application alive.

Conclusion

We’ve now covered the basics of executing programs in FreeRTOS. We’ll delve deeper into using FreeRTOS libraries in the course’s lab exercises.
The example code above may seem cryptic after the clear C language we’ve seen before. However, upon closer examination, you’ll notice that FreeRTOS code relies heavily on existing libraries, their function calls (with their own naming conventions), predefined data structures, pointers, and constants. In essence, it’s still the same C language.
?
Abstraction is a process through which raw machine language instructions are "hidden" underneath the statements of a higher level programming language. Abstraction level determines how extensive the hiding is - the higher the abstraction level, the more difficult it is to exactly say how a complex statement will be turned into machine language instructions. For instance, the abstraction level of Python is much higher than that of C (in fact, Python has been made with C).
Alias is a directive for the precompiler that substitus a string with another string whenever encountered. In it's basic form it's comparable to the replace operation in a text editor. Aliases are define with the #define directeve, e.g. #define PI 3.1416
Argument is the name for values that are given to functions when they are called. Arguments are stored into parameters when inside the function, although in C both sides are often called just arguments. For example in printf("%c", character); there are two arguments: "%c" format template and the contents of the character variable.
Array is a common structure in programming languages that contains multiple values of (usually) the same type. Arrays in C are static - their size must be defined when they are introduced and it cannot change. C arrays can only contain values of one type (also defined when introduced).
Binary code file is a file that contains machine language instructions in binary format. They are meant to be read only by machines. Typically if you attempt to open a binary file in a text editor, you'll see just a mess of random characters as the editor is attempting to decode the bits into characters. Most editors will also warn that the file is binary.
Binary number is a number made of bits, i.e. digits 0 and 1. This makes it a base 2 number system.
A bit is the smallest unit of information. It can have exactly two values: 0 and 1. Inside the computer everything happens with bits. Typically the memory contains bitstrings that are made of multiple bits.
Bitwise negation is an operation where each bit of a binary number is negated so that zeros become ones and vice versa. The operator is ~.
Bitwise operations are a class of operations with the common feature that they manipulate individual bits. For example bitwise negation reverses each bit. Some operations take place between two binary values so that bits in the same position affect each other. These operations include and (&), or (|) and xor (^). There's also shift operations (<< and >>) where the bits of one binary number are shifted to the left or right N steps.
Byte is the size of one memory slot - typically 8 bits. It is the smallest unit of information that can be addressed from the computer's memory. The sizes of variable types are defined as bytes.
External code in C is placed in libraries from which they can be taken to use with the #include directive. C has its own standard libraries, and other libraries can also be included. However any non-standard libraries must be declared to the compiler. Typically a library is made of its source code file (.c) and header file (.h) which includes function prototypes etc.
Functions in C are more static than their Python counterparts. A function in C can only have ne return value and its type must be predefined. Likewise the types of all parameers must be defined. When a function is called, the values of arguments are copied into memory reserved for the function parameters. Therefore functions always handle values that are separate from the values handled by the coe that called them.
C variables are statically typed, which means their type is defined as the variable is introduced. In addition, C variables are tied to their memory area. The type of a variable cannot be changed.
Character is a single character, referred in C as char. It can be interpreted as an ASCII character but can also be used as an integer as it is the smallest integer that can be stored in memory. It's exactly 1 byte. A character is marked with single quotes, e.g. 'c'.
Code block is a group of code lines that are in the same context. For instance, in a conditional structure each condtion contains its own code block. Likewise the contents of a function are in their own code block. Code blocks can contain other code blocks. Python uses indentation to separate code blocks from each other. C uses curly braces to mark the beginning and end of a code block.
Comments are text in code files that are not part of the program. Each language has its own way of marking comments. Python uses the # character, C the more standard //. In C it's also possible to mark multiple lines as comments by placing them between /* and */.
A compiler is a program that transforms C source code into a binary file containing machine language instructions that can be executed by the computer's processor. The compiler also examines the source code and informs the user about any errors or potential issues in the code (warnings). The compiler's behavior can be altered with numerous flags.
Complement is a way to represent negative numbers, used typically in computers. The sign of a number is changed by flipping all its bits. In two's complement which is used in this course, 1 is added to the result after flipping.
Conditional statement is (usually) a line of code that defined a single condition, followed by a code block delimited by curly braces that is entered if the condition evaluates as true. Conditional statements are if statements that can also be present with the else keyword as else if. A set of conditional statements linked together by else keywords are called conditional structures.
Conditional structure is a control structure consisting of one or more conditional statements. Most contrl structures contain at least two branches: if and else. Between these two there can also be any number of else if statements. It is however also possible to have just a single if statement. Each branch in a conditional structure cotains executable code enclosed within a block. Only one branch of the structure is ever entered - with overlapping conditions the first one that matches is selected.
Control structures are code structures that somehow alter the program's control flow. Conditional structures and loops belong to this category. Exception handling can also be considered as a form of control structure.
Data structure is a comman name for collection that contain multiple values. In Python these include lists, tuples and dictionaries. In C the most common data structures are arrays and structs.
Python's way of treating variable values is called dynamic typing aka duck typing. The latter comes from the saying "if it swims like a duck, walks like a duck and quacks like a duck, it is a duck". In other words, the validity of a value is determined by its properties in a case-by-case fashion rather than its type.
An error message is given by the computer when something goes wrong while running or compiling a program. Typically it contains information about the problem that was encountered and its location in the source code.
An exception is what happens when a program encounters an error. Exceptions have type (e.g. TypeError) that can be used in exception handling within the program, and also as information when debugging. Typically exceptions also include textual description of the problem.
Flags are used when executing programs from the command line interface. Flags are options that define how the program behaves. Usually a flag is a single character prefixed with a single dash (e.g. -o) or a word (or multiple words connected with dashes) prefixed with two dashes (e.g. --system. Some flags are Boolean flags which means they are either on (if present) or off (if not present). Other flags take a parameter which is typically put after the flag separated either by a space or = character (e.g. -o hemulen.exe.
Floating point numbers are an approximation of decimal numbers that are used by computers. Due to their archicture computers aren't able to process real decimal numbers, so they use floats instead. Sometimes the imprecision of floats can cause rounding errors - this is good to keep in mind. In C there are two kinds of floating point numbers: float and double, where the latter has twice the number of bits.
Header files use the .h extension, and they contain the headers (function prototypes, type definitions etc.) for a .c file with the same name.
Headers in C are used to indicate what is in the code file. This includes things like function prototypes. Other typical content for headers are definition of types (structs etc.) and constants. Headers can be at the beginning of the code file, but more often - especially for libraries - they are in placed in a separate header (.h) file.
Hexadecimal numbers are base 16 numbers that are used particularly to represent memory addresses and the binary contents of memory. A hexadecimal number is typically prefixed with 0x. They use the letters A-F to represent digits 10 to 15. Hexadecimals are used because each digit represents exactly 4 bits which makes transformation to binary and back easy.
In Python objects were categorized into mutable and immutable values. An immutable value cannot have its contents changed - any operations that seemingly alter the object actually create an altered copy in a new memory location. For instance strings are immutable in Python. In C this categorization is not needed because the relationship of variables and memory is tighter - the same variable addresses the same area of memory for the duration of its existence.
When a variable is given its initial value in code, the process is called initialization. A typical example is the initialization of a number to zero. Initialization can be done alongside with introduction: int counter = 0; or separately. If a variable has not been initialized, its content is whatever was left there by the previous owner of the memory area.
Instruction set defines what instructions the processor is capable of. These instructions form the machine language of the processor architecture.
Integers themselves are probably familiar at this point. However in C there's many kinds of integers. Integer types are distinguished by their size in bits and whether they are signed or not. As a given number of bits can represent up to (2 ^ n) different integers, the maximum value for a signed integer is (2 * (n - 1))
Python interpreter is a program that transforms Python code into machine language instructions at runtime.
The moment a variable's existence is announed for the first is called introduction. When introduced, a variable's type and name must be defined, e.g. int number;. When a variable is introduced, memory is reserved for it even though nothing is written there yet - whatever was in the memory previously is still there. For this reason it's often a good idea to initialize variables when introducing them.
Iteroitava objekti on sellainen, jonka voi antaa silmukalle läpikäytäväksi (Pythonissa for-silmukalle). Tähän joukkoon kuuluvat yleisimpinä listat, merkkijonot ja generaattorit. C:ssä ei ole silmukkaa, joka vastaisi Pythonin for-silmukan toimintaa, joten taulukoiden yms. läpikäynti tehdään indeksiä kasvattavilla silmukoilla.
Keywords are words in programming languages that have been reserved. Good text editors generally use a different formatting for keywords (e.g. bold). Usually keywords are protected and their names cannot be used for variables. Typical keywords include if and else that are used in control structures. In a way keywords are part of the programming language's grammar.
A library is typically a toolbox of functions around a single purpose. Libraries are taken to use with the include directive. If a library is not part of the C standard library, its use must also be told to the compiler.
Logical operation refers to Boole's algebra, dealing with truth values. Typical logical operations are not, and, or which are often used in conditional statements. C also uses bitwise logical operations that work in the same way but affect each bit separately.
Machine language is made of instructions understood by the processor. Machine language is often called Assembly and it is the lowest level where it's reasonable for humans to give instructions to computers. Machine language is used at the latter part of this course - students taking the introduction part do not need to learn it.
Macro is an alias that defines a certain keyword to be replaced by a piece of code. When used well, macros can create more readable code. However, often the opposite is true. Using macros is not recommended in this course, you should just be able to recognize one when you see it.
In C the main function is the starting point when the program is run. The command line arguments of the program are passed on to the main function (although they do not have to be received), and its return value type is int. At its shortest a main function can defined as int main().
When programs are run, all their data is stored in the computer's memory. The memory consists of memory slots with an address and contents. All slots are of equal size - if an instance of data is larger, a continuous area of multiple memory slots is reserved.
Method is a function that belongs to an object, often used by the object to manipulate itself. When calling a method, the object is put before the method: values.sort().
Object is common terminology in Python. Everything in Python is treated as objects - this means that everything can be referenced by a variable (e.g. you can use a variable to refer to a function). Objects are typically used in object-oriented languages. C is not one.
Optimization means improving the performance of code, typically by reducing the time it takes to run the code or its memory usage. The most important thing to understand about opimization is that it should not be done unless it's needed. Optimization should only be considered once the code is running too slowly or doesn't fit into memory. Optimization should also not be done blindly. It's important to profile the code and only optimize the parts that are most wasteful.
A parameter is a variable defined alongside with a function. Parameters receive the values of the function's arguments when it's called. This differentation between parameters and arguments is not always used, sometimes both ends of the value transfer are called arguments.
Placeholders are used in string formatting to mark a place where a value from e.g. a variable will be placed. In Python we used curly braces to mark formatting placeholders. In C the % character is used which is followed by definitions, where the type of the value is mandatory. For instance "%c" can only receive a char type variable.
Pointers in C are special variables. A pointer contains a memory address of the memory location where the actual data value is located. In a sense they work like Python variables. A variable can be defined as a pointer by postfixing its type with * when it's being introduced, e.g. int* value_ptr; creates a pointer to an integer. The contents of the memory address can be fetched by prefixing the variable name with * (e.g. *value_ptr. On the other hand, the address of a memory adress can be fetched by prefixing a variable name with &, (e.g. &value.
The C precompiler is an apparatus that goes through all the precompiler directives in the code before the program is actually compiled. These directives include statements which add the source code of the included libraries into the program, and define directives that can define constant values (aliases) and macros.
Directives are instructions that are addressed at the precompiler. They are executed and removed from the code before the actual compilation. Directives start with the # character. The most common one is include which takes a library into use. Another common one is define, which is used e.g. to create constant values.
Prototype defines a function's signature - the type of its return value, its name and all the arguments. A prototype is separate from the actual function definition. It's just a promise that the function that matches the prototype will be found in the code file. Prototypes are introduced at the beginning of the file or in a separate header file. In common cases the prototype definition is the same as the line that actually starts the function introduction.
Interactive interpreter or Python console is a program where users can write Python code lines. It's called interactive because each code line is executed after its been fully written, and the interpreter shows the return value (if any).
The format method of string in Python is a powerful way to include variable values into printable text. The string can use placeholders to indicate where the format method's arguments are placed.
Python functions can have optional parameters that have a given default value. In Python the values of arguments in a function call are transferred to function parameters through reference, which means that the values are the same even though they may have different names. Python functions can have multiple return values.
In Python the import statement is used for bringing in modules/libraries - either built-in ones, thrid party modules or other parts of the same application. In Python the names from the imported module's namespace are accessible through the module name (e.g. math.sin). In C libraries are taken to use with include, and unlike Python import it brings the library's namespace into the program's global namespace.
Python lists were discovered to be extremely effective tools in Elementary Programming. A Python list is an ordered collection of values. Its size is dynamic (i.e. can be changed during execution) and it can include any values - even mixed types. Lists can also include other lists etc.
In Python main program is the part of code that is executed when the program is started. Usually the main program is at the end of the code file and most of the time under if __name__ == "__main__": if statement. In C there is no main program as such, code execution starts with the main function instead.
In Python a variable is a reference to a value, a connection between the variable's name in code and the actual data in memory. In Python variables have no type but their values do. The validity of a value is tested case by case when code is executed. In these ways they are different from C variables, and in truth Python variables are closer to C pointers.
Pythonin for-silmukka vastaa toiminnaltaan useimmissa kielissä olevaa foreach-silmukkaa. Se käy läpi sekvenssin -esim. listan - jäsen kerrallaan, ottaen kulloinkin käsittelyssä olevan jäsenen talteen silmukkamuuttujaan. Silmukka loppuu, kun iteroitava sekvenssi päättyy.
Pääfunktio on C:ssä ohjelman aloituspiste ja se korvaa Pythonista tutun pääohjelman. Oletuksena pääfunktion nimi on main ja se määritellään yksinkertaisimmillaan int main().
Resource referes to the processing power, memory, peripheral devices etc. that are availlable in the device. It includes all the limitations within which programs can be executed and therefore defines what is possible with program code. On a desktop PC resources are - for a programmer student - almost limitless, but on embedded devices resources are much more scarce.
Return value is what a function returns when its execution ends. In C functions can only have one return value, while in Python there can be multiple. When reading code, return value can be understood as something that replaces the function call after the function has been executed.
A statement is a generic name for a single executable set of instructions - usually one line of code.
C uses static typing This means that the type of variables is defined as they are created, and values of different types cannot be assigned to them. The validity of a value is determined by its type (usually done by the compiler). Python on the other hand uses dynamic typing aka.duck typing.
In Python all text is handled as strings and it has no type for single characters. However in C there are no strings at all - there's only character arrays. A character array can be defined like a string however, e.g. char animal[7] = "donkey"; where the number is the size of the array + 1. The +1 is neede because the string must have space for the null terminator '\0' which is automatically added to the end of the "string".
Syntax is the grammar of a programming language. If a text file does not follow the syntax of code, it cannot be executed as code, or in the case of C, it cannot be compiled.
Terminal, command line interface, command line prompt etc. are different names to the text-based interface of the operating system. In Windows you can start the command line prompt by typing md to the Run... window (Win+R). Command line is used to give text-based commands to the operating system.
The data in a computer's memory is just bits, but variables have type. Type defines how the bits in memory should be interpreted. It also defines how many bits are required to store a value of the type. Types are for instance int, float and char.
Typecast is an operation where a variable is transformed to another type. In the elementary course this was primarily done with int and float functions. In C typecast is marked a bit differently: floating = (float) integer}. It's also noteworthy that the result must be stored in a variable that is the proper type. it is not possible to change the type of an existing variable.
Unsigned integer is a an integer type where all values are interpreted as positive. Since sign bit is not needed, unsigned integers can represent twice as large numbers as signed integers of the same size. An integer can be introduced as unsigned by using the unsigend keyword, e.g. unsigned int counter;.
In the elementary programming course we used the term value to refer to all kinds of values handled by programs be it variables, statement results or anything. In short, a value is data in the computer's memory that can be referenced by variables. In C the relationship between a variable and its value is tighter as variables are strictly tied to the memory area where its value is stored.
A warning is a notification that while executing or - in this course particularly - compiling it, something suspicious was encountered. The program may still work, but parts of it may exhibit incorrect behavior. In general all warnings should be fixed to make the program stable.
One way to print stuff in C is the printf function, which closely resembles Python's print function. It is given a printable string along with values that will be formatted into the string if placeholders are used. Unlike Python, C's printf doesn't automatically add a newline at the end. Therefore adding \n at the end is usually needed.
Out of loops, while is based on repetition through checking a condition - the code block inside the loop is repeated until the loop's condition is false. The condition is defined similarly to conditional statements, e.g. while (sum < 21).